"Alif Laam Raa. A book which we have revealed to you (Muhammad) so that you may lead the people from out of the darknesses into the light by their Lord's leave to the path of the All-Mighty, the Praiseworthy." [Qur'an 14:1]

The Qur'an ("Qor-Ann") is a Message from Allah to humanity. It was transmitted to us in a chain starting from the Almighty Himself (swt) to the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad (saas). This message was given to the Prophet (saas) in pieces over a period spanning approximately 23 years (610 CE to 622 CE). The Prophet (saas) was 40 years old when the Qur'an began to be revealed to him, and he was 63 when the revelation was completed. The language of the original message was Arabic, but it has been translated into many other languages.

The Qur'an is one leg of two which form the basis of Islam. The second leg is the Sunnah of the Prophet (saas). What makes the Qur'an different from the Sunnah is primarily its form. Unlike the Sunnah, the Qur'an is quite literally the Word of Allah, whereas the Sunnah was inspired by Allah but the wording and actions are the Prophet's. The Qur'an has not been expressed using any human's words. Its wording is letter for letter fixed by no one but Allah.

Prophet Muhammad (saas) was the final Messenger of Allah to humanity, and therefore the Qur'an is the last Message which Allah has sent to us. Its predecessors such as the Torah, Psalms, and Gospels have all been superceded. It is an obligation - and blessing - for all who hear of the Qur'an and Islam to investigate it and evaluate it for themselves. Allah has guaranteed that He will protect the Qur'an from human tampering, and today's readers can find exact copies of it all over the world. The Qur'an of today is the same as the Qur'an revealed to Muhammad (saas).

Ibn Battuta was the only medieval traveller who is known to have visited the lands of every Muslim ruler of his time. He also travelled in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), China, Byzantium and Russia. The mere extent of his travels is estimated at over 75,000 miles, a figure which is not likely to have been surpassed before the age of steam.

The famous traveller Ibn Battuta lived by the motto - 'never, if possible, cover any road a second time'. Fifty years earlier than Marco Polo, he travelled, on horse, camel, foot and boat, through all manner of lands, including West Africa where he visited Timbuktu, Mali and Niger. His interest was not only confined to geography. He vividly described the prevailing political, economic and social conditions, the position of women and religious matters. He was appointed Qadi (Chief judge) of Delhi, and spent the last twenty-three years of his life as Qadi of Fez, Morocco, writing his comprehensive travel document.

Ibn Battuta started on his travels when he was 21 years old in 1325. His main reason to travel was to go on a Hajj, or the Pilgrimage to Makkah (Mecca), as all Muslims are instructed to do. But his traveling went on for about 29 years and he covered about 75,000 miles visiting the equivalent of 44 modern countries.

He met many dangers and had many adventures along the way. He was attacked by bandits, almost drowned in a sinking ship and was almost beheaded by a tyrant ruler on his travels!

Near the end of Ibn Battuta's own life, the Sultan of Morocco insisted that Ibn Battuta dictate the story of his travels to a scholar and today we can read translations of that story called "Rihla - My Travels". It is a valuable and interesting record of places which add to our understanding of the Middle Ages.

From Tangier across North Africa to Alexandria, Egypt

Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier, Morocco into a family of Muslim legal scholars in 1304. He studied Muslim law as a young man. Then in 1325, he left Tangier to make a pilgrimage to Makkah (Mecca). He was eager for more learning and adventure.

"My departure from Tangier, my birthplace, took place ... with the object of making the Pilgrimage to the Holy House [at Makkah] and of visiting the tomb of the Prophet [in Medina], God's richest blessing and peace be on him. I set out alone having neither fellow-traveler in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit all my dear ones, female and male, and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation." [Gibb, p. 8]

Travel was dangerous by land and by sea. Ibn Battuta travelled overland at first alone riding a donkey. Then for protection he joined a caravan with other pilgrims and traders. Some of them walked, others rode horses, mules, donkeys, or camels. By the time the caravan reached Cairo, Egypt, the caravan was several thousand members.

The pilgrims were an enthusiastic group and were excited about their hajj (pilgrimage to Makkah). The trip was a grand study tour of the World of Islam - Dar al-Islam. For Ibn Battuta it was an opportunity to acquire knowledge of religion and law, and meet with other Muslim scholars. Ibn Battuta must have thought about getting a fine job as a judge (qadi) in some part of Dar al-Islam after gaining certificates of learning from great scholars of his time.

From Tangier, the travelers arrived at the port of Algiers where they camped outside the city walls waiting for other pilgrims to join the caravan. Then they traveled through forests of oak and cedar, mountains and valleys before reaching the city of Bijaya. Here Ibn Battuta became ill, but he pushed on anxious to get on with his trip. He was advised to stay and rest, but he insisted on continuing.

"If God decrees my death, then my death shall be on the road, with my face set towards ...[Makkah]." [Gibb, p. 11]

Next the group of travelers entered Tunis, a city of about 100,000 - a major city of Islamic art and learning. It was also a shipping port of north African products: wool, leather, hides, cloth, wax, olive oil, and grain. It contained splendid mosques and palaces, public gardens, and colleges.

Ibn Battuta spent about two months in Tunis. Here he stayed in a college (madrasa) dormitory and met with the scholars and judges in high positions. The group left Tunis in a larger caravan of pilgrims and Ibn Battuta was even appointed qadi (judge and settler of disputes) for the hajj caravan - quite an accomplishment for the young traveller! They were accompanied by Muslim government troops of horsemen and archers to protect them from the Arab rebels.

His caravan continued across the coastal Libyan countryside. Near Tripoli a band of camel robbers attacked the caravan waving their swords, but "the Divine Will diverted them and prevented them from doing us harm..."

From there the caravan continued without trouble, completing the 2,000 mile trip across North Africa in about eight or nine months. Since the next pilgrimage season was still eight months away, he decided to be a tourist and visit Cairo, the largest capital of the Arabic-speaking world and the largest city anywhere in the world except those in China! Its population was estimated to be about 600,000 people.

Sometime in 1326, the caravan reached Alexandria at the western end of the Nile Delta. Ibn Battuta was very impressed with Alexandria. Later he said it was one of the five most magnificent places he ever visited. At this time Alexandria was a busy harbor firmly controlled by Egypt's Mamluk warrior caste who had governed that country and Syria as a united kingdom since 1260. It was the Mamluks (Mamluk means "slave") who took over the rule of Egypt from their "masters", and were able to defeat the Mongols who had taken over Baghdad and other parts of the Muslim World.

Ibn Battuta visited other cities on the Nile Delta, and continued on to Cairo (or "al-Qahirah" - "the Victorious") founded in the 10th century by the Fatimid dynasty. Life inside the walled city was crowded and frantic. The narrow streets were filled with people, camels, and donkeys and lined with thousands of shops and markets. Armies of peddlers and vendors also jammed the streets. Ibn Battuta goes on to describe the city's many mosques, colleges, hospitals, and convents which housed the poor. They were built by the amirs (military commanders) who competed "with one another in charitable works and the founding of mosques and religious houses." [Gibb, vol. I, p. 54]

Ibn Battuta was particularly impressed with a maristan (hospital) for its beauty and service to the sick. Such hospitals demonstrated Islamic commitment to "charity", one of the Five Pillars of Islam. A later traveller echoed this enthusiasm:

"Cubicles for patients were ranged round two courts, and at the sides of another quadrangle were wards, lecture rooms, library, baths, dispensary, and every necessary appliance of those days of surgical science. There was even music to cheer the sufferers; while reader of the Koran afforded the consolations of the faith. Rich and poor were treated alike, without fees, and sixty orphans were supported and educated in the neighboring school." [Lane-Poole, Story of Cairo, quoted in Dunn, p. 50.]

On to Syria and Palestine (1326)

Ibn Battuta left Cairo and headed to Damascus, Syria along the Royal Road. The Mamluk government organized caravans to carry pilgrims and merchants along this trail. The Mamluks examined passports, taxed the merchants, and strictly monitored who was going in and out of their territory.

This part of the Mamluk Empire had been in fierce battles with Mongol Invaders. From 1260 to the early 1300s, the Mamluk warriors were able to push the Mongol armies out from Damascus and northern Syria, and kept them from taking Egypt and Palestine. (The Mongols had taken over Baghdad and much of the Abbasid State by 1258 capturing and destroying cities as they went.)

The Mamluk armies protected the empire and kept open the trade routes and the pilgrimage routes. Along one part of the route soldiers on horseback dragged carpet or mats to smooth the sand every night.

Damascus was like a second capital to the Mamluk, a great city that Ibn Battuta just had to see! From Damascus he could connect with a Hajj caravan and complete his trip to Makkah in safety. But there were other holy sites to see on this part of his trip: Al-Khalil (Hebron), Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Bethlehem, and more! And a stream of Muslim, Christian and Jewish pilgrims came to these places under the protection of the Muslim Mamluk Sultan.

Hebron is a holy site for Muslims, Christians, and Jews since it is the burial place of the "fathers" or "patriarchs" of monotheism (belief in one God): Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Also in Hebron are other holy sites: the burial places of Lot and Joseph (son of Jacob). The picture here is the Ibrahim (Abraham) Mosque described by Ibn Battuta, built over the cave tomb of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Ibn Battuta continued on his journey and on his way to Jerusalem he visited more holy sites: the tomb of Jonah - over which there is built a great mosque, and Bethlehem where Jesus was born.

Continuing northward he visited and described more holy places, many towns destroyed by the crusades, such as Tyre and Acre, and he described many castles. He also tells about more holy men, but also of assassins with poisoned knives, wars, and political intrigues, all part of the history of this area.

Then he arrived in Jerusalem which was a rather small town at that time, with a population of only about 10,000. "Its defensive walls were in ruins, part of its water supply had to be brought in... and it was located on none of the important trade routes..." [Dunn, p. 56.] Yet, because of its important shrines and sanctuaries, it was an important part of Ibn Battuta's pilgrimage: "Allah (God) ennoble [Jerusalem] - third in excellence after the two sacred Mosques [of Makkah and Medina] and the place of ascension of the Apostle [Muhammed] of Allah - Allah bless him and give him peace - whence he was caught up into heaven." [Gibb, p. 77.] Here he visited the Sacred Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock.

The silver-domed Al-Aqsa Mosque was built in 691 across from the Dome of the Rock. Al-Aqsa Mosque is the third holiest place in Islam and was the first direction of prayer for Muslims before they faced Makkah. "One prayer here is equivalent to 500 times the prayers in any other mosque except for the Haram Mosque in Makkah and the Prophet's (An-Nabawi) Mosque in Medina. In the journey to heaven, Prophet Muhammed (pbuh) prayed in here, leading all the prophets." The Dome of the Rock was built in 687 A.C. by Caliph Abd al-Malik, half a century after the death of the Prophet Muhammad.

"This is one of the most marvelous of buildings, of the most perfect in architecture and strangest in shape ... it has a plentiful share of loveliness ... and rare beauty... The greater part of this decoration is surfaced with gold, so that it glows like a mass of light and flashes with the gleam of lightning... In the center of the Dome is the blessed Rock ...for the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) ascended from it to heaven. It is a solid piece of rock, projecting about a man's height, and underneath it there is a cave... with steps leading down to it..." [Gibb, vol. I, p. 79.]

Ibn Battuta stayed in Jerusalem for about one week. Because the Hajj season would begin soon, he continued on to Damascus and arrived there during the Holy Month of Ramadan, 1326. From Damascus he could join a hajj caravan going to Makkah.

Damascus had once been the capital of the Umayyad Empire founded by Muawiya, the fourth caliph and a successor of Muhammad. At the time Ibn Battuta visited Damascus, it was an international supermarket. Its population was about 100,000 people. Damascus was a center of trade routes which linked Egypt and Persia, and Asia Minor and the Black Sea region. And it was a center of learning. Ibn Battuta was very impressed with the beauty of Damascus, saying:

"Damascus is the city which surpasses all other cities in beauty..." [Gibb, p. 118]

The Umayyad Mosque (or "Great Mosque") of Damascus, built in the 8th century. It was famous as a center of learning throughout the Muslim world. Ibn Battuta describes it as "the greatest mosque on earth ..., the most perfect in architecture, and the most exquisite in beauty..." [Gibb, p. 124]

During his stay in the city, Ibn Battuta may have lived in this mosque's dormitory, sitting beneath the marble columns and listening to lecturers and Quranic readers. Ibn Battuta stayed in Damascus for only 24 days, and he spent much of his time studying and meeting famous teachers and judges. But "he could not have devoted his every waking moment to his studies since he was by no means free of more mundane concerns. For one thing, his entire stay in Damascus took place during the month of Ramadan, when Muslims are required to fast during daylight hours, a strenuous obligation that upset the normal routines of daily life. He also admits in [his book] that he was down with fever during a good part of his stay and living as a house guest of one of ...[his] professors, who put him under a physician's care. On top of that, he found time ... to get married again." [Dunn, pp. 61 - 62.] Ibn Battuta claimed to have earned additional credentials for his studies in Damascus to help get him a job once he finally reached India.

The destruction of environment by modern technology is seen as one of the most serious threats faced by humanity. Modern technologies have also replaced traditional methods of making objects of daily use. This replacement has serious consequences for the spiritual health of humanity. In discussing the impact of modern technology on the Muslim world, suggestions are made to preserve various aspects of Islamic civilization.

Keywords: Modern technology and its impact; Muslim world and modern technology; aspects of Islamic civilization; role of machine-made objects in the destruction of natural balances; traditional crafts and their spiritual significance; Islamic urban design; modern technology and Islamic civilization.

In this article, modern technology refers to technologies which have been developed during and after the Industrial Revolution mostly in the West and which have now spread all over the world. There are two very different dimensions to this discussion: one pertains to the actual situation that exists in the world, that is, what is going on now; the other pertains to the question of what we believe should go on as far as the Muslim world is concerned. Let me give an example. There is no government in the Muslim world today which does not support any form of technology that brings with it either power or wealth. No one resists any form of technology that is believed to bring certain conveniences, like the cell phone which has spread like wildfire all over the world, and which has many detrimental effects upon the brain, as many studies are showing, though most people usually do not care too much about such negative factors--at least for now.

So, at that level, discussing the relationship between Muslims and modern technology is not efficacious in the sense that whatever form of technology comes on the market--and it is usually from the West, and occasionally from the Japanese and a few other peoples who invent new things--if these new technologies are perceived to bring wealth, power, or conveniences, they spread very rapidly among Muslims as elsewhere and it is no use talking to them about the danger of their spread with the hope of having any positive influence.

But there are other questions which can be discussed, for instance, the destruction of the environment which modern technology is causing. Then there is the dimension of this issue concerning what should take place. What should be the Muslims' attitude toward modern technology whose negative effects are obvious? It is about this dimension that I wish to say something and this is where the deepest issues lie. Otherwise, if we go on debating whether this particular country, or that particular country, has or is going to have or should have knowledge of nuclear engineering or certain types of lasers or this or that, this I think is a wasteful effort at the present moment, because we, who are supposed to be the intellectual figures of the Islamic world, who are supposed to clarify these issues, cannot do much at the level of action by Muslim governments and companies in relation to technology. There is, however, something very important that we can do and that is to create an understanding for the future as far as these issues are concerned. We are responsible for creating an awareness of what is really involved for Muslims when it comes to the adoption of modern technology. And in this domain, in fact, a number of people in the West have a much greater awareness of the dangers of technology than do people in Asia or Africa, who are on the receiving end of modern technology, and this itself is one of the major issues that should be discussed.

In light of this, I think we should turn to the issue of what the problems are which modern technology poses for Muslims, not only as ordinary human beings, but more specifically as people who belong to the Islamic religion and are rooted in the Islamic worldview; then to try and analyze these problems, and in light of that, to discuss what can be done, if anything, and what Muslims should do.

First of all, it is important to define terms. The word technology comes, of course, from the Greek word techne which means "to make" and is related to the word for art, which comes from the Latin word ars, also meaning to make, and both are related to the word san'at in Persian, or the word sina'ah in Arabic which we still use in these languages for both technology and art. Quite interestingly, the division has not yet come about for us, as it has in the West, where art is one thing and technology another, despite the fact that there are some modern sculptors who go to junkyards and put various parts of cars together and call it art. That is a minor matter.

What we have in the modern world is a situation in which technology in the modern sense is the source of most of the objects that surround human life, whereas, before the Industrial Revolution, when things were made by hand, the products of arts and crafts surrounded man's life. This is very important to understand. There is a qualitative difference, although the root of the word "technology" goes back to a Greek word with a very different meaning.

Some people think that to live an Islamic life is "restrictive". Islam however, was revealed as a balanced way of living. Allah (The Most High) created all the humans with what is called 'A Fitrah' (a natural state/desire).Islam recognises that within this Fitrah there are motivations that influence a man's role on earth e.g. a desire for good food and drink, to have a home, a desire for love and sex, to protect and be protected and to be successful and strong. Without some form of control and limit, all of these legitimate motives could prove very dangerous.

So what constitutes the perfect control for the Fitrah? It must be a method that provides an organised yet practical demonstration of how to balance all these natural human desires. It cannot be something that goes against the Fitrah, by placing on it extra burdens. Likewise, it cannot be something that allows the human desires to run wild without any form of control.

Islam is the perfect control for the Fitrah. It provides a divine method that elevates man above animals and the rest of creation.

Humans lack perfect knowledge as well as perfect wisdom. No matter how hard we try, we will never attain the perfect way of life by our own thinking and interpretation. This is the reason why Allaah being the Most Wise, sent us the Qur'an and the Prophet Muhammad (SAW)[2] to show us this practical and organised way of life.

Allaah, being Perfect, in His Wisdom and Knowledge, perfected a complete way of life for us. He has set His limitations and rules, all of which are beneficial to mankind, and therefore, do not need changing:

"These are the limits (set) by Allaah, so do not approach them"
(Surah al-Baqarah 2:1871)

"These are the limits set by Allaah, so do not transgress them"
(Surah al-Baqarah 2:229)

This is why Islam does not allow celibacy, because it is against the Fitrah, i.e., the desire for sex. Celibacy goes beyond the limits required by humans, and is something that cannot be fulfilled because humans are designed to procreate. As humans we are not expected to fast every single day for the rest of our lives (for most 30 days of the year provides an up-hill struggle). It is also from ignorance to say that 'I shall not sleep during the night, but rather I shall pray!' [3] Humans have not been created by Allah to live life in such a manner. There is a balance which must be observed.

The following incident describes the Islamic stance towards such behaviour, Anas reported that some of the Companions of Allaah's Messenger (SAW) used to say: "I will not marry women"; someone else said: "I will not eat meat"; and someone else said: "I will not lie down in bed". (On hearing this): The Prophet (SAW) praised Allaah, and glorified Him and said: "what has happened to these people that they say so and so, whereas I observe prayer and I sleep too. I observe fast and I break my fast; I marry women also. And he who turns away from my Sunnah (i.e., my example or lifestyle), he has no relation with me" [Narrated in Saheeh Muslim vol. 2. p703. no. 32361].

Islam on the other hand, does not allow the person to surrender themselves to lust and desire, as in contemporary 'civilisation'. Islam recognizes the love a man has for women, children, gold, silver, and other possessions. But it provides a limit for the amount of this worldly pleasure which we require, and reminds us of the life in the hereafter.

"Beautified for men is the love of things they desire: Women, Children, much of gold and silver (wealth), branded beautiful horses, cattle and well-tilled land. This is the pleasure of the present world's life, but Allaah has the excellent return ( Paradise )"
(Surah Aali-Imraan 3:141)

The inclinations and desires of the Fitrah are not to become the objective in life. Rather they are to be taken in a stabilised manner. The way to deal with them is real and Allaah (The Most High) has given us the detailed descriptions of a levelled approach. This levelled approach gives mankind the perfectly balanced pleasure in this worldly life. The method of maintaining a well-balanced life is not an endurance test to see who lasts the longest. Allah has revealed Islam, to show us how to attain this balance in a real manner. Life is not a torturous spiritual test, where you are ordered to Iive in mountains and trees. Fasting all year round is not obligatory. Marriage is permissible and you do not have to beat yourself senseless to purify your soul! Rather as Muslims, we must try to follow the Prophet and his balanced teachings of life and living. As Allah says in the Qur'an:

"Indeed in the Messenger of Allah (saw), you have a good example to follow.."
(Surah Al-Ahzab 33:21)

The literal meaning of Islam is peace; surrender of one’s will i.e. losing oneself for the sake of God and surrendering one’s own pleasure for the pleasure of God. The message of Islam was revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) 1, 400 years ago. It was revealed through angel Gabriel (on whom be peace) and was thus preserved in the Holy Quran. The Holy Quran carries a Divine guarantee of safeguard from interpolation and it claims that it combines the best features of the earlier scriptures.

The prime message of Islam is the Unity of God, that the Creator of the world is One and He alone is worthy of worship and that Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) is His Messenger and Servant. The follower of this belief is thus a Muslim - a Muslim’s other beliefs are: God’s angels, previously revealed Books of God, all the prophets, from Adam to Jesus (peace be on them both), the Day of Judgement and indeed the Decree of God. A Muslim has five main duties to perform, namely; bearing witness to the Unity of God and Muhammad (peace and blessings on him) as His Messenger, observing the prescribed prayer, payment of Zakat, keeping the fasts of Ramadhan and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Islam believes that each person is born pure. The Holy Quran tells us that God has given human beings a choice between good and evil and to seek God’s pleasure through faith, prayer and charity. Islam believes that God created mankind in His image and by imbuing the attributes of God on a human level mankind can attain His nearness. Islam’s main message is to worship God and to treat all God’s creation with kindness and compassion. Rights of parents in old age, orphans and the needy are clearly stated. Women’s rights were safeguarded 1,400 years ago when the rest of the world was in total darkness about emancipation. Islamic teachings encompass every imaginable situation and its rules and principles are truly universal and have stood the test of time.

In Islam virtue does not connote forsaking the bounties of nature that are lawful. On the contrary one is encouraged to lead a healthy, active life with the qualities of kindness, chastity, honesty, mercy, courage patience and politeness. In short, Islam has a perfect and complete code for the guidance of individuals and communities alike. As the entire message of Islam is derived from the Holy Quran and indeed the Sunnah and Hadith (the traditions and practices of the Holy Prophet, peace and blessings on him) it is immutable in the face of change in time and place. It may appear rigid to the casual eye, in actual fact it is most certainly an adaptable way of life regardless of human changes.

Islam teaches that the path to spiritual development is open to all. Any individual who searches the One Creator can seek nearness to God through sincere and earnest worship; it is central to establishing a relationship with the Almighty. This positive message for humanity fills hearts with hope and courage.

At present there are 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide and they form the majority in more than 50 countries of the world. Today Islam is the fastest growing faith in the world - its beautiful message is reaching millions in the far corner of the earth.

PRA-ISLAM

Jazirah Arab diantara dua imperium besar : Romawi dan Persia, akan tetapi tidak pernah terjajah karena faktor alam.

Ketika itu, Syam dan Mesir merupakan bagian dari Romawi sedangkan Iraq merupakan bagian dari Persia. Karena diantara kedua imperium tersebut selalu terjadi peperangan maka rute perdagangan dari India dan Teluk Persia menuju Laut Tengah via Iraq menjadi rusak. Para pedagang lalu mengambil jalur perdagangan dari Yaman, lewat Makkah, menuju ke Gaza, Damaskus, dan Laut Tengah. Makkah juga kondusif sebagai pusat perdagangan karena dianggap sebagai Tanah Haram yang harus steril dari pertumpahan darah.

Sebagian besar penduduk Makkah adalah penyembah banyak tuhan (musyrik), dan mereka memiliki adat istiadat yang jauh dari keluhuran nilai-nilai moral (penindasan masyarakat lemah, perjudian, pelacuran, pembunuhan, kecurangan, dan sebagainya), kecuali bahwa mereka masih menjunjung tinggi beberapa adat istiadat seperti menghormati tamu dan fanatisme kesukuan.

Muhammad dilahirkan dari keturunan Isma’il, pada Tahun Gajah (571 M) dimana Abrahah melakukan penyerangan terhadap Ka’bah. Ayah beliau wafat ketika beliau masih dalam kandungan.

Diasuh oleh Halimah As-Sa’diyah.

Ibunda beliau wafat ketika beliau berusia 6 tahun.

Bersama sang kakek (Abdul Muthallib) sampai usia 8 tahun.

Bersama sang paman (Abu Thalib).

Menikah dengan Khadijah pada usia 25 tahun.

Memiliki kebiasaan berkhalwat.

BA’DAL BI’TSAH (SESUDAH DIUTUS SEBAGAI RASUL)

Menerima wahyu pertama pada usia 40 tahun.

Berdakwah secara sembunyi-sembunyi sampai tahun ke-3 kenabian.

Berdakwah secara terang-terangan kepada penduduk Makkah sampai tahun ke-10 kenabian :

Berdakwah secara terang-terangan kepada penduduk di luar Makkah sampai tahun ke-13 kenabian :

Hijrah ke Madinah

Setidak-tidaknya, tercatat 30 ghazwah (belum termasuk sariyyah) sesudah hijrah. Ini berarti dalam setiap tahun rata-rata terdapat 3 ghazwah (empat bulan sekali).

KHILAFAH RASYIDAH (30 tahun, dari 11-41 H)

Kekhalifahan Abu Bakr Ash-Shiddiq (11-12 H / 632-633 M)

Kekhalifahan Umar ibnul Khaththab Al-Faruq (13-23 H / 634-644 M)

Kekhalifahan Utsman ibn ‘Affan (23-35 H / 644-656 M)

Kekhalifahan Ali ibn Abi Thalib (35-40 H / 656-661 M)

Kekhalifahan Al-Hasan ibn Ali (41 H / 662 M)

Dalam ushul fiqih terdapat sebuah kaidah asasi al-‘adat muhakkamat (=adat dapat dihukumkan) atau al-‘adat syari’at muhakkamat (=adat merupakan syariat yang dihukumkan). Kaidah tersebut kurang lebih bermakana bahwa adat (tradisi) merupakan variabel sosial yang mempunyai otoritas hukum (hukum Islam). Adat bisa mempengaruhi materi hukum , secara proporsional. Hukum Islam tidak memposisikan adat sebagai faktor eksternal non-implikatif, namun sebaliknya, memberikan ruang akomodasi bagi adat. Kenyataan sedemikian inilah antara lain yang menyebabkan hukum Islam bersifat fleksibel.

Dalam bahasa Arab, al-‘adat sering pula dipadankan dengan al-‘urf. Dari kata terakhir itulah, kata al-ma’ruf – yang sering disebut dalam Al-Qur’an – diderivasikan. Oleh karena itu, makna asli al-ma’ruf ialah segala sesuatu yang sesuai dengan adat (kepantasan). Kepantasan ini merupakan hasil penilaian hati nurani. Mengenai hati nurani, Rasulullah pernah memberikan tuntunan agar manusia bertanya kepada hati nuraninya ketika dihadapkan pada suatu persoalan (mengenai baik dan tidak baik). Beliau juga pernah menyatakan bahwa keburukan atau dosa ialah sesuatu yang membuat hati nurani menjadi gundah (tidak sreg).

Dalam perkembangannya, al-‘urf kemudian secara general digunakan dengan makna tradisi, yang tentu saja meliputi tradisi baik (al-urf al-shahih) dan tradisi buruk (al-‘urf al-fasid). Dalam konteks ini, tentu saja al-ma’ruf bermakna segala sesuatu yang sesuai dengan tradisi yang baik. Arti “baik” disini adalah sesuai dengan tuntunan wahyu.

Amr bi al-ma’ruf berarti memerintahkan sesama manusia untuk bertindak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai yang pantas menurut suatu masyarakat, yang tidak bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai wahyu.

Nilai-nilai yang pantas menurut suatu masyarakat merupakan manifestasi hati-hati nurani masyarakat tersebut dalam konteks kondisi lingkungan yang melingkupi masyarakat tersebut. Kondisi lingkungan yang berbeda pada masyarakat yang berbeda akan menyebabkan variasi pada nilai-nilai kepantasan yang dianut. Karena itu, tradisi pada suatu masyarakat bisa berbeda dengan tradisi pada masyarakat yang lain.

Sebagai sebuah contoh, apabila Al-Qur’an menyatakan “wa ‘asyiru hunna bi al-ma’ruf (=Dan pergaulilah isteri-isteri kalian secara ma’ruf)” maka yang dimaksud adalah tuntutan kepada para suami untuk memperlakukan isteri-isteri mereka sesuai dengan nilai-nilai kepantasan yang berlaku dalam masyarakat, yang mana nilai-nilai itu bisa jadi berbeda dengan yang ada pada masyarakat lainnya. Namun perlu diingat bahwa nilai-nilai kepantasan itu tidak boleh bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai wahyu (Al-Qur’an dan Sunnah Nabi).

Karakter hukum Islam yang akomodatif terhadap adat (tradisi) amat bersesuaian dengan fungsi Islam sebagai agama universal (untuk seluruh dunia). “Wajah” Islam pada berbagai masyarakat dunia tidaklah harus sama (monolitik). Namun, keberagaman tersebut tetaplah dilingkupi oleh wihdat al-manhaj (kesatuan manhaj) yaitu al-manhaj al-Nabawiy al-Muhammadiy.

Berangkat dari kesadaran “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika” inilah, Islam tidaklah harus disamakan dengan Arab. Islam merupakan sebuah manhaj yang bersifat universal, yang tidak bisa dibatasi oleh ke-Arab-an semata (Namun perlu diingat bahwa Arab [terutama bahasa Arab] dalam beberapa hal memang mempunyai posisi strategis dalam Islam).

Namun, harus disadari pula bahwa Islam diturunkan kepada Muhammad saw, seorang Arab, ditengah-tengah bangsa Arab. Implikasinya, Nabi tidak akan bisa lepas dari konteks/lingkungan Arab. Hal ini nantinya juga akan berpengaruh pada pewahyuan, baik Al-Qur’an maupun Al-Sunnah (sebagaimana dikatakan oleh para ushuliyyun dan mutakallimun bahwa perkataan [yang bukan Al-Qur’an] dan perbuatan Nabi merupakan “wahyu” karena Nabi senantiasa mendapat penjagaan dan ilham dari Allah).

Sebagai contoh, Al-Qur’an mau tidak mau mesti diturunkan dalam bahasa Arab agar bisa dipahami oleh komunitas dimana Al-Qur’an diturunkan. Demikian juga perkataan Nabi, mesti dinyatakan dalam bahasa Arab. Demikian pula penyebutan nama-nama benda dalam Al-Qur’an dan Al-Hadits, tidaklah akan keluar dari perbendaharaan yang bisa dipahami oleh masyarakat Arab saat itu. Kalaupun ada istilah yang tidak dimengerti, maka para sahabat mesti langsung menanyakannya kepada Nabi. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman terhadap bentuk-bentuk tasyri’ yang melibatkan nama-nama benda, haruslah dilakukan secara esensial, lepas dari kungkungan bahasa, tempat, dan zaman. Sebuah contoh, tatkala Nabi memberitakan bahwa habbat al-sauda’ (jintan hitam) merupakan suatu obat yang mujarab bagi penyakit tertentu, maka itu tidak berarti bahwa tidak ada obat lain yang juga bisa menyembuhkan penyakit tersebut. Adalah sangat mungkin akan ada berpuluh-puluh obat yang bisa berfungsi seperti habbat al-sauda’. Esensi dari berita Nabi tentang habbat al-sauda’ adalah zat yang dikandung oleh habbat al-sauda’, yang bisa menyembuhkan penyakit tertentu, dan zat tersebut bisa juga terdapat pada benda lain. Atau barangkali esensinya lebih luas dari itu, yakni perintah Nabi agar umatnya giat melakukan riset di bidang farmasi untuk menemukan berbagai benda di alam ini, yang berkhasiat untuk mengobati penyakit. Namun pola pemahaman esensial ini tidak boleh sampai kepada interpretasi bahwa, misalnya, habbat al-sauda’ tidak lagi efektif untuk obat, karena Nabi sudah jelas-jelas mengatakan efektivitasnya. Jadi, interpretasi boleh meluas (berangkat dari teks) namun tidak boleh membatalkan teks itu sendiri (karena justeru teks itulah titik tolak interpretasi).

Demikian pula tradisi (sunnah) Nabi secara umum, haruslah dipahami secara esensial. Hal ini tidak lain karena Islam merupakan agama universal dan berlaku selamanya. Dengan pemahaman esensial, syariat akan dapat diterapkan dalam setiap aspek kehidupan, sampai ke relung-relungnya yang terkecil sekalipun. Pemahaman esensial juga akan menjadi “mimpi buruk (nightmare)” bagi orang-orang yang hendak melakukan hilat (intrik, manipulasi) terhadap syariat, dengan bertameng pada teks.

Adaptasi syariat terhadap adat juga bisa diamati pada materi wahyu. Imam Al-Syathibi dalam Al-Muwafaqat menerangkan bahwa akibat ke-ummi-an bangsa Arab maka wahyu (yang berarti juga syariat) pun bersifat ummi. Maksudnya, wahyu turun dengan tingkat kompleksitas yang sesuai dengan tingkat berpikir bangsa Arab saat itu. Wahyu tidak dituntut untuk dipahami secara njelimet melebihi kemampuan berpikir bangsa Arab saat itu. Meskipun begitu, justeru generasi saat itulah yang merupakan generasi terbaik dalam pemahamannya terhadap wahyu.